Slavery has existed since the earliest recorded civilizations, including the Pharaohs of Egypt. The Berbers (Arabs) and the Vikings, including those from Denmark, practiced slavery. Indigenous peoples of the Americas also practiced slavery long before European colonization. In Africa, slavery was already present prior to European intervention. This article will focus on European slavery, particularly in relation to colonization and the development of racism as a concept.
The concept of racism as we understand it today—rooted in beliefs of racial superiority and inferiority—was instigated and shaped by European colonialism as a reaction to the enlightenment and liberal democracies. . While cultural and ethnic prejudice and discrimination and slavery existed throughout history, they lacked the distinct difference of being racialized and pseudo-scientific framework that emerged with colonial expansion.
Heres how these ideas evolved.
Examples of Pre-Colonial Discrimination:
While modern racism emerged with European colonialism, earlier forms of ethnic and cultural prejudice existed, for example:
Ancient Egypt: Foreigners like Nubians and Libyans were depicted differently in art, reflecting cultural rather than racial distinctions.
Greco-Roman World: Greeks and Romans viewed non-Greeks or non-Romans as "barbarians" due to language and customs, not biology.
Medieval Europe: Prejudice against Jews, Muslims, and others was rooted in religion and culture, not racial hierarchy.
Mongol Empire: Ethnic bias existed toward conquered peoples, such as the Chinese, but was based on cultural differences.
European Colonialism and scientific racism:
The word "race" comes from the Italian word razza, meaning "kind" or "breed," and was used to describe animals and later humans. The earliest English use of "race" (mid-16th century) referred to groups of people with common ancestry or lineage, not specifically tied to physical appearance or ethnicity. It was more akin to "family" or "kind" in a broad sense. In even earlier usage, the term could align with biblical ideas of "kind," referring to natural orders or types, such as animals on Noah's Ark. This idea emphasized groupings based on creation or inherent qualities.
European colonization and slavery, beginning with Columbus's 1492 voyage, played a pivotal role in shaping modern racial ideologies. As European powers expanded globally, they encountered indigenous populations in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. To justify slavery, land theft, and exploitation, colonial powers employed cultural and religious superiority as a pretext—an approach seen in nearly every empire throughout history. However, European colonization introduced a distinct shift.
Initially, countries like Spain and Portugal—the first European colonial powers—used Catholicism to justify their actions of colonisation and land and resource stealing . Portugal was the first European state to begin colonising outside Europe. Spain was next and became the first empire the sun never set on. Spain , allowed indigenous peoples in the Americas to avoid enslavement if they converted to the Catholic faith.
Spain’s approach to slavery during its colonial expansion was deeply influenced by Catholic theology and papal decrees. Early doctrines, such as Pope Nicholas V’s Dum Diversas (1452) and Romanus Pontifex (1455), authorized the enslavement of non-Christians, particularly Muslims, pagans, and others deemed "enemies of Christendom." While these decrees were primarily directed at Portugal, they shaped the Iberian colonial mindset, which viewed the enslavement of non-Christian populations as a legitimate act of conquest. However, a key tenet of Spanish colonization was the notion that Indigenous peoples could be converted to Catholicism, and once baptized, they were to be treated as "free vassals of the Crown," not slaves.
This principle was codified in Spanish laws, such as the Laws of Burgos (1512-1513) and the New Laws of 1542. The Laws of Burgos permitted forced labor under the encomienda system but mandated that Indigenous people who converted to Catholicism be granted certain rights and protections. The New Laws, issued by King Charles I, went further in attempting to curb abuses against Indigenous peoples and limit their enslavement altogether. Despite these legal frameworks, enforcement was inconsistent, and colonial elites often resisted these restrictions, continuing exploitative practices under the guise of forced labor.
The moral argument against enslaving converts was reinforced by Pope Paul III’s Sublimis Deus (1537), which declared that Indigenous peoples were rational beings capable of receiving the Christian faith and should not be enslaved. While this decree affirmed the dignity of Indigenous people within a Christian framework, it also served to justify colonization as a "civilizing mission." Conversion became a tool of both liberation and control—once baptized, Indigenous peoples were integrated into the colonial system as subjects of the Crown, rather than being reduced to chattel. This duality exemplifies how Spain’s colonial policies intertwined religion with conquest, offering freedom to converts while continuing to exploit non-Christian populations.
This religious justification was still present but changed when Britain came next and entered its colonization phase, culminating in the Enlightenment and the rise of liberal democracies.
While Britain was protestant , in British colonies, conversion to Christianity did not automatically grant freedom to enslaved people, mainly because the British legal system saw slavery as a property issue. The dominant legal and economic view was that enslaved Africans were legally regarded as property, and property rights were difficult to override, regardless of religious conversion. Additionally, the concept of race had become increasingly racialized by the time Britain’s colonial slavery system was fully entrenched, making the notion of freedom tied to race as much as religion.
The legal framework for slavery in Britain was solidified through judicial decisions rather than royal decrees. For instance, the 1706 "Smith v. Gould" case established that enslaved Africans were legally considered property under common law. It wasn’t until Somerset v. Stewart in 1772 that the legality of slavery on English soil was directly challenged, though this ruling did not extend to abolishing slavery in the colonies. By the late 18th century, Britain had emerged as the dominant power in the transatlantic slave trade, with royal charters, parliamentary support, and colonial laws sustaining its economic reliance on enslaved labor.
Like Spains, Britain's colonial expansion was driven by a combination of economic, political, and ideological motives. Initially, the primary aim was to access resources like spices, gold, silver, and other valuable commodities to fuel economic growth and wealth accumulation. Colonies provided raw materials for Britain’s growing industries and markets for its finished goods, making them integral to mercantilism and the emerging capitalist economy.
However, ideological motives such as the "civilizing mission" and the effort to Christianize indigenous populations played a significant role, especially in the later stages of colonial expansion. The British, influenced by Enlightenment ideas and Protestant evangelical movements, framed colonization as a moral duty to bring "civilization" and Christianity to what they considered "uncivilized" peoples. This rhetoric of cultural and religious superiority was used to rationalize domination and exploitation, even when the primary objective remained economic.
Like Spain and Portugal before it, Britain’s colonial expansion was initially driven by the economic need for resources and markets. However, as the 18th and 19th centuries progressed, the narratives of civilizing and Christianizing became key components of Britain's ideological justification for colonization. These motives often worked in tandem, as spreading Christianity and European culture was viewed as a means to secure control and transform colonies into more compliant and economically productive societies.
What changed ?
The Enlightenment period and then the rise of liberal democracies intensified racial ideologies, framing European superiority in terms of biology and pseudo-science.
While Britain's expansion was tied to Enlightenment ideals and the spread of liberal democracies. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and reducing the kings power , Britain introduced a Bill of Rights promoting equality under the law. Similarly, during the American Revolution 90 odd years later , the 1776 Declaration of Independence declared:
"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness."
In particular USA invented the cotton gin in 1793 and they needed lot more slaves in the south to plant and harvest the cotton. The existing slave system of black and white (indentured from] from Ireland and UK] got expensive and in short supply. Thus began the nefarious Atlantic slave trade for them.
However, this posed a problem for these new liberal societies reliant on slavery. Rather than abandon the principle of equality, slavers redefined what it meant to be "man." Racialized views, reinforced by 18th- and 19th-century pseudo-scientific racial theories, restructured the definition of humanity to exclude those enslaved or colonized. These ideas of racial inferiority and superiority had no true precedent before European colonialism, marking a transformative moment in global history.
A racial hierarchy was constructed, positioning white Europeans as inherently superior to non-Europeans, particularly darker-skinned peoples, who were labeled subhuman and intellectually inferior. Pseudo-scientific theories categorized people into distinct "races" based on physical traits like skin color and skull shape, falsely linking these characteristics to intelligence and moral capacity. This marked a departure from earlier justifications for slavery, embedding systemic racism into European ideologies.
Such frameworks rationalized colonization and slavery, making them more acceptable within European societies. Ideas like the "civilizing mission" and "the white man's burden" justified domination under the guise of progress.
How European Colonialism Led to the Invention of Race—And Why That Still Matters
For video version The origins of Race - PBS from that article.
Effects of pseudo scientific racism:
Racism became systemic in various colonised societies through entrenched
laws and practices that reinforced racial hierarchies:
In South Africa, apartheid laws formalized racial segregation and economic disenfranchisement of non-white populations.
In New Zealand, the 1877 Wi Parata v Bishop of Wellington court case saw Judge Prendergast dismiss the Treaty of Waitangi, claiming Māori were uncivilized and unfit to make binding agreements, embedding racism in legal doctrine. This coloniser attitude still hasnt ended and attempts by coloniser nz govt to end Maori poverty have produced push back by liberal racist right wing groups like Hobsons pledge and David Seymours (coalition partner ACT leader) Treaty Principals Bill currently in parliament who use the liberal argument its Maori own fault and up to them individually to make better lives [ignoring all societal history and constraints talked about here and elsewhere]. Bill criticism is covered here
In the USA, The Dred Scott case, formally known as Dred Scott v. Sandford, was decided by the U.S. Supreme Court on March 6, 1857. This infamous decision ruled that African Americans, whether free or enslaved, were not U.S. citizens and therefore had no standing to sue in federal court. It also declared that Congress lacked the power to prohibit slavery in U.S. territories, effectively nullifying the Missouri Compromise of 1820. Effectively making them property not citizens, perpetuating systemic racism through slavery, until the USA civil war ended slavery and thou after added the 13th and 14th amendments were able to continue exploitation akin to slavery instigated through democratic party Black Codes, Jim Crow laws, which used the 13th and 14th amendment in constitution to target at blacks which still occurs in USA today to enable black prison exploitation of prison labor, using racially biased drug laws, and discriminatory policing.
Modern liberal and progressive movements and legislation that attempt to lift poverty for blacks in the post war period got pushback from further right wing neo liberal conservatives because it fits the neo liberal agenda of smaller government . The most prolific pushbacks are trying to ban teaching about slavery in schools, promoting Thomas Sowells liberal idea that black poverty and crime and drugs are governments fault because of these these welfare and other programs and individuals fault causing absent black fathers from homes [in contradiction) . While protests against racist police violence erupt like BLM they make anti socialist and other conservative arguments eg its wrong to protest and use the argument blacks kill more blacks than police do . Which is true , but its a direct result of gang violence itself a result of conservative policy by Richard Nixon and republican party and his instigated war of drugs on the people aka drug war on the people.
Right-wing conservatives, like those from the Daily Wire, continue to deny systemic racism, arguing that the absence of explicitly racist legislation means no systemic issue exists. However, this perspective depends on a narrow definition of "systemic" that focuses only on government laws. Despite this, systemic racism is embedded in the 13th Amendment, making their argument flawed. Systemic racism extends beyond written legislation.
Government agencies, such as police departments, demonstrate systemic racism through practices like disproportionately targeting and harming Black communities, including shootings and arrests, even though no law explicitly mandates such actions—these institutions are part of the government system that perpetuates racial inequality.
Similarly, capitalism contributes to systemic racism through employment discrimination and corporate practices that create racial disparities. Since governments establish and protect profit-driven corporations, these economic inequities are also part of systemic racism. While less overt today, a significant example is bank lending practices, which led to racially segregated communities and disadvantages for Black people, contributing to poverty and the ghettos that persist. Redlining, as it was called, systematically denied Black families access to mortgages and homeownership from the 1930s through the 1960s. This discriminatory practice contributed to the generational wealth gap that persists today.
Read more about redlining on Federal Reserve History
https://www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/redlining?utm_source=chatgpt.com
3. That result in heath issues Why are some cities declaring racism a health crises
For a visual exploration of how redlining affected communities, you might find this video informative: How redlining prevented Black and Brown families from building wealth
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cUl3l4w5CYw&t=11s
Final word is that racism does not mean today what it meant in the later 17th century and during the 18th century, being a much softer condemning of a certain ethnicity or simply grouping of certain ethnicity as homogenous [the same].
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